Bicycle Propulsion Systems

Bicycle Propulsion Systems 1.Abstract This report documents the development of bicycle propulsion systems over time and mentions the changes made to make the bicycle more efficient, safe, faster and resistant. It defines what a bicycles drivetrain system is in a few words and what they are used for on a bicycle. It includes brief information about 4 of the first bicycles made in the 1800s and refers to the changes in design and materials used for these bicycles. It also consists information of the 2 main bicycles used today and the improvements they have had compared to the older bicycles. At last, this report recommends improvements that could be made to the bicycle to make it more efficient. 3.Nomenclature Km/h = kilometers per hour Kg = kilograms Torque = a force that causes rotation Cadence = the number of revolutions of the crank per minute 4.Introduction Public transportation has changed and improved over a great period of time. These improvements have helped make transportation ,from one location to another, much easier. The bicycle is a great example of a method of transportation that has gone through a lot of improvements so that it is easier to use, faster, safer and more damage resistant. All this has happened by engineers taking into consideration the materials they use and the design of the bicycle. 5.Discussion and Analysis of Material 5.1 Bicycle Drivetrain Systems (Appendix 1 and 2) Bicycle Drivetrain Systems are used to transmit the riders power to the drive wheels in order to move the bicycle forward. Nowadays, most drivetrain systems include mechanisms that are used to convert speed and torque via gear ratios. Over the years propulsion systems for the bicycle have ranged from the riders legs, to the modern drivetrain systems that include gears and pedals. 5.2 History (Appendix 3) Over the past couple of centuries many different bicycles have been invented that have different characteristics in order to improve safety and efficiency, but still had a similar structure. Many of the different developed bicycles include: Hobby Horse (Appendix 4) The Hobby Horse was invented in 1817, by the German inventor, Baron Karl Drais. This bicycle had a primitive design and did not include a drivetrain. It was a 23kg bicycle which was made out of wood, including the wheels. It also included a leather saddle for the rider to sit on, and resembled a modern handlebar. The riders feet was the propulsion system for this bicycle. This meant that the rider wouldnt be able to go very fast and would require a great amount of effort to move it forward due to its weight. It would also be difficult to transfer the bicycle uphill, thus the rider would have to carry it. Whilst going downhill, the lack of brakes would cause the bicycle to travel at a fast speed without anything, other than the riders feet, to stop it. Velocipede (Appendix 5) The Velocipede was invented in 1858 by the French Michaux company. This bicycle was a great development from the Hobby Horse. It first had a cast iron frame which was then changed to wrought iron for better damage resistance. The seat featured suspension which was inspired by the suspension used in wagons. Although, the bicycle was not comfortable to ride, hence why its also called the Boneshaker. The wheels were wooden but consisted of iron tyres. It also included pedals on the axle of the front wheel as the bicycles propulsion system. The pedals would allow the rider to use less effort, compared to the Hobby Horse, to move the bicycle forward. This bicycle also consists of the introduction of a first brake, which included a metal lever that pressed a wooden pad against the rear wheel, making it much safer as it has the capability of stopping, though the wooden pad would wear out due to the friction between the pad and the wheel. Penny Farthing (Appendix 6) The Penny Farthing was invented in 1869 by French, Eugene Meyer. The bicycles design was based on the desire to make it faster, thus using it for sport. Since gears were not invented yet, the front wheels size was increased so it would travel a longer distance after one full rotation. The frame weight was reduced to increase riding comfort including solid rubber tires, and the use of hollow steel tubes made it lighter. With the introduction of spokes and ball bearings, the wheels were also improved. The Penny Farthing would reach top speeds of 40km/h, but despite its advantages it had many disadvantages. It required a running start and a mounting step for riders to be able to mount it. To stop, the rider would require to jump off the bike. The higher centre of gravity on the bicycle would mean that if the rider fell they would have great accident. And at last, if the rider went over a bump they would be sent flying, leading to a fatal accident. The Penny Farthings propulsion system were still the pedals, although, their positioning on the bigger front wheel would require riders with tall legs to ride them. Due to the bigger wheel, one rotation of the pedals would allow the bicycle to cover a longer distance, hence why it is faster than previous bicycles. This design might my the bicycle faster and more efficient, but it was more dangerous due to the height and centre of gravity of the bike, the lack of feasible brakes and the high speeds it can reach. The Rover (Appendix 7) The Rover was invented in 1885 by English John Kemp Starley. This bicycle was chain driven and was also known as the Safety Bicycle. It featured equal sized wheels and a diamond frame, used to equally distribute the forces throughout the bicycles frame, though it still lacked a seat tube. The solid rubber tires were also replaced in 1888 with pneumatic tires, which made it more comfortable to ride. The original model of The Rover used treadles to turn the rear wheels, but the later updated model used a chain drive which consisted of a large front sprocket and a small rear sprocket used to multiply the revolutions of the pedals without the need of a large front wheel. The pedals were more centred putting the riders feet away from the front wheel, and the centre of gravity was lower making it easier for the rider to stop by putting their feet on the ground. To also better stop the bicycle, it included a lever which pushes a metal pad onto the front wheel. This bicycle was much safer due to its frame design and its low centre of gravity. It had increased efficiency due to the positioning of the pedals and the two same sized wheels whilst still being capable of travelling at high speeds with the brake being able to stop the bicycle if needed. The design of the handlebar also helped to improve the handling of the bicycle. The use of metal on the frame and on the chain mechanism also made it resistant from damage. Although, with the introduction of the new chain mechanism, pebbles or sticks could get caught in the chain, possibly damaging the mechanism. 5.3 The modern bicycles Today there is a variety of bicycles that are used for different situations. To be able to adapt to the different situations, the bicycles have different characteristics but still have similarities structure-wise. The 2 main types are mountain bikes and racing bikes. Mountain Bikes (Appendix 8) Mountain bikes are bicycles designed for off-road riding. They are similar to other bikes but consist features that help enhance performance and durability on rough terrain. They consist of suspension on the frame and fork making the ride on rough terrain more comfortable, knobby tires which adds more grip on the wheels, heavy duty wheels that add durability, and more powerful brakes to help stop the bike instantly when on the rough terrain. The bicycles propulsion system includes derailleur gears (Appendix 2) that consists of a crankset for the rotation of the bicycles pedals, a cogset which is a set of different sized metal cogs or sprockets that are used as the gears, and a chain that links the cogset with the crankset. Different gears provide different torque and speed and requires different amounts of effort to rotate the pedals. The higher the gear, the more torque, speed and effort. The gears are controlled by a shifter which is connected to the gearing gearing mechanism by a cable. Mountain bikes tend to have up to 30 gears, yet mountain bikers choose to use 10 or 9 speed bikes due to the lighter weight and less complexity. The mountain bikes are very efficient and safe bicycle as they include disk brakes that help with instantaneous stopping, a gearing system that helps reduce the amount of effort the rider will have to use and is adaptable to different types of roads, and suspension that provides comfort. Racing Bike (Appendix 9) Racing bikes are designed for competitive road cycling. Its main characteristics are its light weight for higher speeds, and its stiffness due to the lack of suspension also to achieve high speeds with the sacrifice of comfort. The handlebars are designed and positioned lower than the saddle so that the rider has a more aerodynamic posture. The front and back wheels are positioned close together to allow for quick handling. For the propulsion system the bicycle uses a derailleur system similar to the Mountain Bike. The gear ratios have close spacing so that the rider can pedal at the optimum cadence. To shift gears the bicycle consists of an electronic shifting system. The switch is connected wired or wirelessly to a battery pack and to a small electric motor that is used to drive the derailleur, moving the chain between the cogs. This improvement allows for the rider to switch gears faster. The Racing Bike is quite efficient in terms of speed, and quite safe as it includes disk brakes that stop the bike instantly with the exception of knobby wheels as it would decrease the speed of the bike. The materials manufactures use for the frame e.g. Carbon fibre, cause the bike to be light in weight and capable of travelling at faster speeds. 6.Conclusions There have been many major developments in public transport over the years, with the bicycle as a great example. Many improvements have been made to the bicycle and the methods it uses for the rider to move it forwards. The introduction of new drivetrain systems and the vast use of different materials according to their properties are the cause of these improvements. The invention of, more complex, propulsion and brake systems have helped improve the efficiency and safety of the bicycle and the implementation of stronger and lighter materials has increased the bicycles damage resistance and has made it capable of reaching higher speeds (Appendix 10) with less effort required by the rider. Also improvements on the seat and the suspension on the bicycle have contributed to make it a more comfortable method of transportation. 7.Recommendations The bicycle has had great developments over the years, though more improvements can be made in order to make the bicycle safer, faster and more efficient. Such improvements may include: Adding a cover, made of a light plastic, for the gearing system so that nothing can get caught in the mechanism, running the brake lines through the frame of the bicycle so there arent any cords hanging, adding a cogset to the front wheel making it a 2-wheel drive thus making it faster. 8.References Crazyguyonabike April 15, 2009, The Hobby Horse: 1817 Karl Drais and his running machine. https://www.crazyguyonabike.com/doc/page/?page_id=40616 , (accessed 1/3/2017) Crazyguyonabike May 2, 2007, The Boneshaker: 1867 Pierre Lallement, the Michaux family and their velocipede. https://www.crazyguyonabike.com/doc/page/?page_id=40617 , (accessed 1/3/2017) Crazyguyonabike July 2, 2007, The Penny Farthing: 1878 James Starley and his ordinaries. https://www.crazyguyonabike.com/doc/page/?page_id=40618 , (accessed 1/3/2017) Crazyguyonabike March 27, 2009, The Rover: 1885 The modern bicycle born in England. https://www.crazyguyonabike.com/doc/page/?o=tSpage_id=40621v=9Y , (accessed 1/3/2017) Wikipedia January 6, 2017, Racing Bicycle. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racing_bicycle , (accessed 2/3/2017) Wikipedia February 23, 2017, Mountain bike. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_bike , (accessed 2/3/2017) 9.Appendices Appendix 1 Appendix 2 Appendix 3 Appendix 4 Appendix 5 Appendix 6 Appendix 7 Appendix 8 Appendix 9 Appendix 10

The Concept of Omoiyari (Altruistic Sensitivity) in Japanese Relational Communication

Intercultural Communication Studies XV: 1 2006 Hara The Concept of Omoiyari (Altruistic Sensitivity) in Japanese Relational Communication Kazuya Hara, Meikai University, Japan Abstract It is essential to explore Japanese concepts in Japanese languages as intellectual tools for future studies in Asia. In order to develop Asian theories of communication, therefore, Asian communication scholars ought to engage in this important task.This paper presents such an attempt by conceptualizing the concept of omoiyari for a Japanese theory of relational communication. In social psychology, the Japanese concept of omoiyari has been examined in terms of altruism, sympathy, empathy, and prosocial behavior, and a variety of cognitive models of prosocial behavior arousal have been proposed. In the field of communication studies, however, the concept of omoiyari has not attracted much scholarly attention, although aspects of harmonius Japanese communication are well documented.By synthesizing the rel evant literature on omoiyari across disciplines, then, this paper formulates a definition of omoiyari for Japanese communication research, lays out its basic assumptions, and characterizes it in light of four major semantic areas of omoiyari: (1) prayer, (2) encouragement, (3) help, and (4) support. Introduction â€Å"Cast your bread upon the waters and it will return to you. † –a saying reflecting omoiyari When Japanese people feel another’s kindness toward them and see someone’s warm-hearted feelings, thoughts, and behaviors, they appreciate that person’s omoiyari.The primary meaning of omoiyari is â€Å"an individual’s sensitivity to imagine another’s feelings and personal affairs, including his or her circumstances† (Shinmura, 1991, p. 387, translated by Hara). Omoiyari has attracted non-Japanese scholars’ attention as one of the most important ideas in Japanese cultural value and communication (e. g. , Lebra, 1976; Travis, 1998; Wierzbicka, 1997). The word omoiyari is often seen on signs bearing a school motto and at police stations. In many surveys of public opinion, Japanese people have listed omoiyari as a key concept on which they put high value.Although omoiyari -based behavior and activity are seen across cultures, Japanese people are the ones who put the highest value on omoiyari all over the world (Kikuchi, 1988; Akanuma, 2004). This humane omoiyari concept has been emphasized in moral education at schools in Japan as the guiding principle to communicate with others (Ito, 1998a; 1998b). In educational psychology in Japan, the importance of omoiyari has been emphasized with its developmental views of children (e. g. , Kikuchi, 1988).Recent inhumane crimes such as ill-treatment bullying or indiscriminate murder on the street are caused by the lack of omoiyari, and the importance of omoiyari has undergone a reevaluation in terms of education in the schools (Kanno, 1988). Psychological asp ects of omoiyari such as empathy and sympathy have been studied, 24 Intercultural Communication Studies XV: 1 2006 Hara and its behavior has been studied as prosocial behavior, altruistic behavior, and helping behavior in social psychology (e. . , Harada, 1991; Kikuchi, 1998; Matsui, 1991). Although the term â€Å"omoiyari behavior† is not generally used as a technical term in social psychology (Matsui, 1991), the titles of several studies on these concepts are comprehensively translated into Japanese using the word omoiyari (e. g. , Eisenberg & Mussen, 1989; Hoffman, 2001; Jones, 1993). Additionally, cultural psychologists Uchida and Kitayama (2001) developed a measurement scale of omoiyari from the viewpoint of sympathy.In the field of communication studies, although aspects of harmonious communication have been well-researched, only a few studies have focused on omoiyari as an important factor of Japanese harmonious communication. For example, Donahue (1998) argues that om oiyari is a psychological factor in Japanese indirect communication. In health communication, Kakai (2002) argues that Japanese prefer ambiguity or not disclosing of cancer to their family members. Behind such indirect communication and style is the psychological and cultural background of omoiyari.These studies refer to the study on Japanese empathy by anthropologist Lebra (1976) and her definition and observation of omoiyari. Although previous studies have contributed to pointing out the importance of omoiyari in Japanese mental culture and behavioral culture, there are three points to be further considered. First, many psychological studies based on Western concepts have not proposed clear conceptual definitions of omoiyari, so there is no consensus on its definition.Second, studies on omoiyari in other fields have only argued one aspect of omoiyari with its case contexts; we might be able to explore multi-aspects of omoiyari, taking various communication contexts and levels into consideration. Third, negative aspects of omoiyari have not been referred to adequately in previous studies on omoiyari. For example, there are cases when omoiyari toward others might not be appreciated or accepted by others. In order to develop future studies on omoiyari in Japanese communication, this paper attempts to concisely conceptualize Japanese omoiyari across disciplines.Additionally, the author believes that it is essential to explore Japanese concepts in Japanese languages as intellectual tools for future studies in Asia. In this paper, first, the author will review the relevant concepts in Western psychology which have been argued as omoiyari in Japan. Then, he will articulate Japanese omoiyari with its translation, definition, and major characteristics. Finally, using a diagram, he will propose four semantic areas of omoiyari, taking its communication levels and contexts into consideration.Omoiyari and Its Relevant Concepts The idea of omoiyari has been argued from th e standpoint of the concepts of altruism, sympathy, empathy and prosocial behavior. Although the causal developmental relationship among these concepts is controversial (e. g. , Eisenberg, 1986; Hoffman, 1982; Toi & Baston, 1982), each concept in itself has been regarded as one aspect of omoiyari in Japanese social psychology and communication studies. This means that these concepts are seen as elements of omoiyari, and conversely that omoiyari can be conceptualized with a combination of these concepts.The foundation of omoiyari feelings can be covered with the concept of altruism. Altruism is other-oriented and self-sacrificial (Kerbs, 1975). According to Cohen (1978), altruism refers to an act or desire to offer something gratuitously to others when needed. Cohen indicates that there are three components of altruism: (a) giving, or the desire to do so; (b) empathy; and (c) the absence of any motives of reward from doing the altruistic behavior. 25 Intercultural Communication Studi es XV: 1 2006 Hara Essentially, altruism lies in the motivation to help others and to aid others in their behavior.As this conceptual definition shows, altruism is the source that produces more concrete omoiyari feelings and behavior. Based on altruism, omoiyari seems to comprise both sympathy and empathy (e. g. , Kikuchi, 1991, 1998; Matsui, 1991). Sympathy refers to a concern for another person, agreement with and consideration for the feelings of others, or compassion (DeVito, 1986). It is generally conceived as a reaction to particular contexts such as the sadness or disappointment of others. Another view is that sympathy refers to a feeling for another person, while empathy refers to actually feeling as that person does (DeVito, 1986).Empathy in omoiyari is described in Bruneau’s (1995) definition as â€Å"‘feeling into’ another’s feelings with one’s own, vicariously, and attempting to achieve some I-thou congruence† (p. 87). Empathy imp lies understanding of others through imagining the situation of others (Travis, 1998). Psychological aspects of altruism, empathy, and sympathy are reflected in prosocial behavior. Prosocial behavior generally refers to â€Å"voluntary actions that are intended to help or benefit another individual or group of individuals† (Eisenberg & Mussen, 1989, p. 3).Wispe (1972) suggests that prosocial behavior refers to behaviors that can be described as sympathetic, altruistic, charitable, and so on. Furthermore, prosocial behavior benefits others without anticipating external rewards, and is done under the conditions that it is done either for its own end, or as an act of restitution (Bar-Tal, 1976). Also, as Bar-Tal argues, prosocial behavior should not be carried out as a result of external threat, enforcement, or obligation, but should be due to an individual’s freedom to decide to act in a certain manner or not.Reviewing altruism, empathy, sympathy, and prosocial behavior in human communication, on the basis of altruism, people seem to have feelings of either empathy or sympathy at the stage of intrapersonal communication. Additionally, in the context of communication activities with others, when such feelings are seen in behavior, the behavior is regarded as prosocial behavior. As the findings in Uchida and Kitayama’s (2001) survey indicate, omoiyari as sympathy had a positive relationship with emotional empathy and prosocial behavior. The combination f these concepts seems to help conceptualize aspects of omoiyari. However, since each concept cannot individually cover omoiyari in a comprehensive sense, we need a conceptual definition of omoiyari before applying these concepts to aspects of omoiyari. The Concept of Japanese Omoiyari In Japanese communication, it is often seen that people say â€Å"show omoiyari toward others† when a person does not do so. The word omoiyari is directed toward anybody of the same generation and status, o r toward younger people with regard to both in-group and out-group members.To say â€Å"have omoiyari† to elderly people, on the other hand, sounds arrogant, although the person is thinking â€Å"omoiyari† in his or her mind. In such a situation, it seems appropriate to use the word â€Å"itawari†(caring consideration with respect) instead, even though the person has the word â€Å"omoiyari† in his or her mind. In this section, the author attempts to propose an expedient translation of omoiyari into English which is comprehensible to both Japanese and non-Japanese people. Then, the author will define omoiyari in Japanese communication.Translation of Omoiyari into English It is impossible to translate Japanese omoiyari into English with one word or phrase 26 Intercultural Communication Studies XV: 1 2006 Hara which is comprehensible to both Japanese and non-Japanese people. Even words such as compassion, consideration, thoughtfulness, mercy, and benevolenc e cover only one aspect of Japanese omoiyari. There seem to be two reasons for this difficulty. First, there are different views of omoiyari across cultures.For example, Yamagishi (1995) argues that for Westerners, omoiyari is not â€Å"thoughtfulness† to others, which is occasionally perceived to be unnecessarily imposed by others depriving one’s own right to choose his/her own behavior. Easterners, on the other hand, believe that thoughtfulness-based omoiyari is essential to living a group-oriented life. Secondly, as Travis (1998) points out, English words such as â€Å"considerate† and â€Å"thoughtful,† which are related to omoiyari, do not involve the same kind of â€Å"intuitive† understanding. This intuitive way of communication is also cultivated as intuitive listening and empathic understanding inJapanese ways of communication (Barnland, 1975). As for a neutral and comprehensible translation term, Yamagishi (1995) points out that â€Å"se nsitivity† can represent the feelings of omoiyari that are common to Westerners and Easterners and which do not have the connotation of imposing one’s thought on others. Therefore, in this paper, the author uses his own tentative and expedient translation of omoiyari as â€Å"altruistic sensitivity† taking the definition of altruism, â€Å"concern for the happiness and welfare of other people rather than for your own † (Sinclair, 1987, p. 2) into consideration, regarding altruism as the psychological foundation to produce omoiyari-based feelings such as empathy or sympathy. Defining Omoiyari Omoi in omoiyari means considerate caring for others, while yari is the noun form of the verb yaru, which means sending something to others. Therefore, â€Å"omoiyari † literally means sending one’s altruistic feelings to others. The difference among omoiyari, empathy, and sympathy is that omoiyari implies intuitive understanding and includes behaving in that way (Shinmura, 1991; Travis, 1998; Uchida & Kitayama, 2001).Consideration toward others is not always received, and omoiyari does not expect any reward. If any reward is expected, it is not omoiyari but business-like helping behavior. One of the definitions of omoiyari which is frequently referred to is the one by cultural anthropologist Lebra (1976), which describes omoiyari as â€Å"the ability and willingness to feel what others are feeling, to vicariously experience the pleasure or pain that they are undergoing, and to help them satisfy their wishes†¦without being told verbally†(p. 38).Historical anthropologist Akanuma (2004) states that omoiyari is to guess others’ feelings and pay careful attention to their feelings, accepting what has happened (or will happen) to others as what has happened (or will happen) to myself. Social psychologist Ninomiya (1991) defines omoiyari as voluntary behavior for others’ benefit. The common assumptions underlying all these definitions are that omoiyari is voluntary and that people put high value on sharing feelings with others. As such, intuitive understanding is necessary.In this study, the author will define omoiyari as an intuitive understanding of others’ feelings that will occasionally lead us to conceive what to do or what not to do to others. Taking the conceptual issues of omoiyari into consideration, the author will further argue major characteristics of omoiyari in the following section. Major Characteristics of Omoiyari To have a sense of omoiyari and to behave with omoiyari are regarded as ideal communication in Japanese society. For example, according to a survey by the Ministry of 27 Intercultural Communication Studies XV: 1 2006 HaraEducation in Japan cited in the Yomiuri-shimbun (1994), elementary and junior high school teachers in Japan answered that they put the highest value on omoiyari in moral education. Additionally, in a survey on child-birth in Japan by the Yo miuri-shimbun (2005), 86. 7% of the parents expected their children to be a child with omoiyari. As these data show, to have omoiyari is essential in Japanese relational communication across contexts. In this section, the author will begin to argue major characteristics of omoiyari based on its psychological, behavioral aspects, along with the assumptions of omoiyari in previous studies.Then negative aspects of omoiyari will be briefly mentioned. Finally, four context-based semantic areas of omoiyari in human communication will be proposed. Psychological Aspects of Omoiyari Omoiyari has been considered altruistic feelings or emotional participation in others’ mindds (Eisenberg & Mussen, 1989; Kikuchi, 1988), and there are three characteristics which occasionally lead to actual prosocial behavior. The first is that omoiyari does not include the concept of â€Å"otherness† (Akanuma, 2004). This means that omoiyari means to understand the other’s feelings, not taki ng one’s self-concept into consideration (Otsuka, 1991).In this assumption, there is a Japanese interpersonal view that puts high value on oneness with others. For example, Hamaguchi (1985) argues that Japanese people think that since affectionate mutual aid is essential, people should read mutual true intention, and the relationship once established must be respected as valuable. Oneness with others gets reinforced through mutual omoiyari. The second is that omiyari is neither based on pity from superiority nor on mechanistic give-and-take relations (Otsuka, 1991).The motivation of omoiyari is voluntary, and does not expect gratitude from others (Kikuchi, 1991). If a person expects any reward when they help others, that is not omoiyari. Such a reward-expecting behavior will not be respected but rather despised, and is against the virtue of omoiyari. The third is that the value of omoiyari is evaluated based on purity of consideration of others. It goes without saying that th e purer the consideration is, the more appreciated it is. However, such pure consideration of others occasionally contradicts its behavior.A commonly cited example is that physicians and family members are reluctant to directly disclose terminal diagnoses to patients because of omoiyari (Kakai 2001; Paton & Wicks, 1996). Such communication, which might be regarded as deception, will not be criticized by others because they know the family’s true feelings. Behind this type of communication, there is an unspoken assumption that true and honest feelings will be understood by others even though one’s behavior contradicts his or her psychological feelings. Behavioral Aspects of Omoiyari Omoiyari in behavior has been studied as prosocial behavior in social psychology.Kikuchi (1998) provides four common characteristics of omoiyari based on its psychological assumptions. The first is that omoiyari as prosocial behavior includes the idea of an action which is helpful for others . However, this does not necessarily mean that the prosocial behavior will be willingly accepted by others. The second is that omoiyari as true prosocial behavior is not done with the expectation of a reward from others. This is not a matter of whether a person receives or rejects a reward, but rather the premise that the person had no desire to receive a reward in the first place.The third is that omoiyari-based prosocial behavior is accompanied by a kind of cost or risk of self-sacrifice. The final condition is that omoiyari as prosocial behavior 28 Intercultural Communication Studies XV: 1 2006 Hara should be voluntary. This means that a person is not bound by any sense of duty to others, but is willing to behave prosocially as a choice. Japanese omoiyari behavior is uniquely seen in conflicting situations. For example, it is often stated that Japanese prefer to avoid conflict rather than to try to resolve it. In such a situation, the Japanese are inclined to use mbiguous or euph emistic expressions with their bokashi (ambiguous) logic (Nayayama, 1986), and to use honne (true intentions) and tatemae (public principles) properly (Doi, 1985) so as not to hurt others’ feelings. Such a linguistic feature can be described as â€Å"the language of omoiyari,† and it is listener-oriented (Ando, 1986). Even to enemies, they do not tend to deliver a fatal blow. Such communication styles are represented in proverbs such as teki ni shio wo okuru (to show humanity even to one’s enemy) or bushi no nasake (samurai-like mercy). Omoiyari, however, is not always performed desirably.In the following section, negative aspects of omoiyari will be mentioned with cases that are against its psychological and behavioral assumptions. Negative Aspects of Omoiyari Omoiyari does not always function as we hope. For example, overly imposing omoiyari on others might be a psychological burden or, even worse, an annoyance. This is called osekkai (meddlesome) and is the a ntithesis of empathetic understanding (Lebra, 1976). Especially when the elderly want to meddle in younger people’s affairs, the younger people cannot say â€Å"Please mind on your business. This type of omoiyari could be considered osekkai. In the worst case scenario, when omoiyari is not accepted by the receiver as the source expected, the source might blame the receiver in his or her mind. This is called sakaurami (to think ill of a person who meant to be kind). At the point when the source feels sakaurami, however, his or her kindness to others is no longer regarded as omoiyari. Four Context-Based Semantic Areas of Omoiyari in Human Communication As argued above, omoiyari consists of both affective aspects (altruism, sympathy, empathy) and a behavioral one (prosocial behavior).Using these concepts, the author will attempt to conceptualize four semantic areas of omoiyari. The following figure representing the four areas of omoiyari is based on intrapersonal communication (Areas A and B) and interactive level (Areas C & D). [See next page. ] The fundamental assumption is that Area A and Area B are at the level of intrapersonal communication and cover one’s cognitive and affective aspects. Area C covers the interaction stemming from Area A, and Area D covers the interaction stemming from Area B. Area A and Area C are based on sympathy, while Area B and Area D are based on empathy.Every feeling and behavior by a communicator is based on altruism and with intuition. Area A is the situation where a person is worrying abut someone’s undesirable situation and praying that it will be improved. The feeling is based on altruism and sympathy. In this context, examples such as praying for the recovery of another’s health or sympathizing with the struggle of others are included. In contrast, in Area B, the communicator has a feeling of encouragement in his or her mind, and the feeling is based on altruism and empathy.For example, praying for the success or health of others is included in this area. Area C and Area D cover people’s behavioral aspects in their relational communication and social activities. In these areas, verbal and nonverbal interaction is exchanged, and helping behavior is added when necessary. Area C, which stems from the psychological feelings of Area A, stands for prosocial behavior based on altruism and sympathy. 29 Intercultural Communication Studies XV: 1 2006 Hara Communication activities such as helping behavior or volunteer activities are included in this area.Also, Area D, which stems from the psychological feelings of Area B, is based on altruism and empathy, and includes situations such as supporting other people’s success with one’s own will or participating in activities to share happiness with others. Prosocial Behavior Area C: Help Area D: Support Sympathy – – – – Area A: Prayer Intuition –––– Empathy Area B: Encouragement Altruism Figure 1. Four Context-Based Semantic Areas of Omoiyari in Human Communication Concluding Remarks The primary purpose of this essay was to onceptualize Japanese omoiyari (altruistic sensitivity) with its psychological and behavioral characteristics, and to propose four types of omoiyari (prayer, encouragement, help, and support) from the viewpoint of communication. Although the author was only able to review a portion of the previous literature on omoiyari, he hopes that the essence of omoiyari conceptualized in this paper will contribute to further studies of Japanese relational communication. Based on the conceptualization in this paper, the author expects future studies to be conducted in three areas.First, various communication styles in each of the four semantic areas of omoiyari (prayer, encouragement, help, and support) should be further examined and discussed. Secondly, the possibility of combining these four areas should be further examined using empi rical studies. Third, based on the emic studies on this type of concept all over the world, to seek commonalities of omoiyari views across cultures is strongly suggested. Based on these studies, derived-etic views of altruistic sensitivity are highly anticipated. References Akanuma, K. (2004). Nihonjin wa naze gambaru noka (Why do the Japanese make efforts to anything? . Tokyo: Daisan-shokan. Ando, S. (1986). Nihongo no ronri, eigo no ronri (The logic of Japanese language and the logic of English language). Tokyo: Taishukan. Barnlund, D. C. (1975). Public and private self in Japan and the United States: Communicative Styles of two cultures. Tokyo: Simul Press. Bar-Tal, D. (1976). Prosocial behavior: Thory and research. NY: Halsted Press. Bruneau, T. (1988). Conceptualizing and using empathy in intercultural contexts. Human Communication Studies,16,37-70. 30 Intercultural Communication Studies XV: 1 2006 Hara Bruneau, T. (1995).Empathetic intercultural communication: State of the art and future potential. Intercultural Communication Studies, 8,1-24. Cohen, R. (1978). Altruism: Human, cultural, or what? In L. Wispe (Eds. ), Altruism, sympathy, and helping: Psychological and sociological principles (pp. 79-98). New York, NY. Academic press. DeVito, J. A. (1986). The communication handbook: A dictionary. New York, NY: Harper & Row. Doi, T. (1985). The anatomy of self: The individual versus society (M. A. Harbison. Trans. ). Tokyo: Kodansha International. Donahue, R. T. (1998). Japanese culture and communication: Critical cultural analysis.Lanham, MD. University of Press America. Eisenberg, N. (1986). Altruistic cognition, emotion, and behavior. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Eisenberg, N. & Mussen, P. H. (1989). The roots of prosocial behavior in children. Cambridge CB: Cambridge University Press. Eisenberg, N. & Mussen, P. H. (1989). Omoiyari kodo no hattatsu shinri (The roots of prosocial behavior in children) (A. Kikuchi. & N. Ninomiya Trans. ). Tokyo: Kaneko-shobo. H amaguchi, E. (1985). A contextual model of the Japanese: Toward a methodological innovation in Japanese studies. (S. Kumon & M. R. Creighton Trans. ).Journal of Japanese Studies, 11, (2), 289-321. Harada, J. (1991). Omoiyari no kozo (The anatomy of omoiyari). In Kikuchi, A. (Ed. ) Gendai no esupuri: Omoiyari no shinri, No. 291 (Current espirit: The psychology of omoiyari No. 291. (pp. 48-56). Tokyo: Shibundo. Hoffman, M. L. (1982). Development of prosocial motivation: Empathy and guilt. In N. Eisenberg (Ed. ,) The development of prosocial behavior (pp. 218-231). New York: Academic Press. Hoffman, M. L. (2001). Kyokan to dotokusei no hattatsu shinrigaku: omoiyari toseigi tono kakawariaide (Empathy and moral development: Implications for caring and justice) (Kikuchi, A. Ninomiya, K. Trans. ). Tokyo: Kawashima-shoten. Ito, K. (1998a). Omoiyari no kokoro wo hagukumu dotokujugyo: Shogakkou ni okeru togoteki puroguramu no tenkai (Moral education classes to develop omoiyari mind: The devel opment of programs at elementary schools). Tokyo: Meiji Tosho Shuppan. Ito, K. (1998b). Omoiyari no kokoro wo hagukumu dotokujugyo: Chugakko ni okeru togoteki puroguramu no tenkai ((Moral education classes to develop omoiyari mind: The development of programs at junior high schools). Tokyo: Meiji Tosho Shuppan. Jones, R. N. (1993).Omoiyari no ningenkankei sukiru (Human relationship skills: Training and self-help). (Aikawa, M. Trans. ). Tokyo: Seishin-shobo. Kakai, H. (2002). A double standard in bioethical reasoning for disclosure of advanced cancer diagnoses in Japan. Health Communication, 14, (3), 361-376. Kanno, J. (1988). Ijime to omoiyari: ijimekko no kokoro no yugami (Ill-treatment and omoiyari: The distorted mind of ill-treating children). Jidoshinri (Child Psychology), 42, (6), 25-32. Kerbs, D. (1975). Empathy, and altruism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 1134-1146. Kikuchi, A. 1988). Omoiyari no hattatsu shinri (Developmental psychology of omoiyari). Jido shinri (Child Psychology), 42, (6), 18-22. 31 Intercultural Communication Studies XV: 1 2006 Hara Kikuchi, A. (1991). Omoiyari wo kangaeru: Hito to hito tono kakawarigaku (Consideration of omoiyari: Science on the relationship between person and person). Kyoto: Tanko-sha. Kikuchi, A. (1998). Mata omoiyari wo kagaku suru (Another scientific argument on omoiyari). Tokyo: Kawashima-shoten. Lebra, T. S. (1976). Japanese patterns of behavior. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press. Matsui, Y. (1991).Omoiyari no kozo (The anatomy of omoiyari). In Kikuchi, A. (Ed. ) Gendai no esupuri: Omoiyari no shinri, No. 291 (Current espirit: The psychology of omoiyari No. 291. (pp. 27-37). Tokyo: Shibundo. Nakayama, O. (1986). Nihonjin no bokashi komyunikeshon ni taisuru rinsho shakaigakuteki kenkyu (A study of the Japanese communication from the viewpoint of socio-clinical psychology). Shakaishinrigaku Hyoron (Japanese Review of Social Psychology), 5, 12-25. Ninomiya, K. (1991). Kodomo no omoiyari, otonano omoiyari (Children’s omoiyari and adults’ omoiyari). In Kikuchi, A. (Ed. Gendai no esupuri: Omoiyari no shinri, No. 291. (Current espirit: The psychology of omoiyari No. 291). (pp. 38-47). Tokyo: Shibundo. Otsuka, S. (1991). Nihon no kokoro, Toyo no kokoro: Omoiyari no hikaku shisoshi kenkyu (Japanese mind and Oriental mind: The studies on comparative philosophical history of omoiyari) Tokyo: Keizai-oraisha. Paton, L. & Wicks, M. (1996). The growth of the hospice movement in Japan. The American Journal of Hospice & Palliative Care, 13, (4), 26-31. Shinmura, I. (1991). Kojien (4th ed). Tokyo: Iwanami-shoten. Sinclair, J. (Ed. ). (1987). Collins cobuild English language dictionary.London: HarperCollins. Toi, M. & Batson, C. D (1982). More evidence that empathy is a source of altruistic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 281-292. Travis, C. (1998). Omoiyari as a core Japanese value: Japanese-style empathy? In A. Angeliki & T. Elzbieta ( Eds. ), Speaking of emotions: Conceptualization and expression (pp. 55-81). Berlin: Mouton de Gryyter. Uchida, Y. & Kitayama, S. (2001). Omoiyari shakudo no sakusei to datosei no kensho (Development and validation of a sympathy scale). The Journal of Psychology, 72, (4), 275-282. Wierzbicka, A. (1997).Understanding cultures through their key words: English, Russian, Polish, German, and Japanese. New York: Oxford University Press. Wispe, L. G. (1972). Positive forms of social behavior: An overview. Journal of Social Issues, 28, (3), 1-19. Yamagishi, K. (1995). Nichiei gengo bunka ronko (Aspects of Japanese-English languages and cultures). Tokyo: Kobian-shobo. Yomiuri shimbun (1994, May 27). Sofuto ni natta dotoku kyooku (Moral education in Japan became flexible). Tokyo: Yomiuri shinbun-sha. p. 30. Yomiuri shimbun. (2005, July 5). Data: Kazoku (Data: Family). Tokyo: Yomiuri-Shimbun-sha. p. 39. 32

Adaptive Social Behaviors, Conformity, Compliance And...

Adaptive Social Behaviours Conformity, compliance and obedience are a set of adaptive social behaviours that one makes use of to get by in daily social activities. They are all some form of social influence, which causes a change in a particular person or group’s behaviour, attitude and/or feelings (Cialdini, 2000, 2006). Various forms of social influence have been used for a variety of reasons; sometimes to help individuals stray from harmful behaviour such as smoking; other times [not as altruistic as the latter] to sway customer decisions towards consumerism. Such changes in behaviour require systematic approaches that can be in the shape of direct personal requests; or more subtle and elaborate commercials and political campaigns. Direct efforts geared at changing another’s overt behaviour require persuasion; and are often described as compliance [seeking compliance]; which involves specific requests that are answerable by simple answers such as â€Å"Yes†, â€Å"No† or â€Å"M aybe†. Other behavioural etiquettes sometimes require the impact of a set of rules, such as [formally] speed signs, or [informally] public space rules [staring at strangers is seen as inappropriate]; this type of influence is known as conformity, which is generally believed to be an integral part of social life. Obedience as a form of social influence tends to take a more straightforward [abrupt] approach as it involves direct orders or commands from a superior. Conformity: Pressure to behave in ways deemedShow MoreRelatedLearning Theory : Classical Conditioning Of Observational Learning Essay2439 Words   |  10 Pagesinfluence individual social interactions? Yes, close friendships have influence on social interactions such as social activity level, mood, weight, political views, new friends, health, mortality, etc., which can be explained through the social learning theory; classical conditioning of observational learning. There has also been much empirical investigation e xamining selection and socialization effects with results indicating influences on a wide variety of attitudes and behaviors. There is also growingRead MorePhysical Restraint And Nursing Home Facilities5608 Words   |  23 Pagesphysical restraint in nursing home facilities can vary between 4 to 68%. There are favorable mechanisms that are used when associated with physical restraint use in so that the residents and/or individuals not injured, and decrease the amount of eloping behavior. Physical restraints devices run the gamut from belts, which tie the resident into bed, vests, which hold the resident in bed or in a chair, specialized chairs, which keep the resident seated, and restraints systems which immobilize the resident’sRead MoreDevelopmental Psychology14082 Words   |  57 PagesThe Information Processing approach regarding these three aspects Focus and views of Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory and The Information Processing Approach Vygotsky’s social theory focuses on how culture (values, beliefs, customs and skills of a social group) is transmitted to the next generation. According to Vygotsky, social interaction (especially co-operative dialogues between children and more knowledgeable members of society) is necessary for children to acquire the ways of thinking andRead MoreDevelopmental Psychology14091 Words   |  57 PagesInformation Processing approach regarding these three aspects Focus and views of Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory and The Information Processing Approach Vygotsky’s social theory focuses on how culture (values, beliefs, customs and skills of a social group) is transmitted to the next generation. According to Vygotsky, social interaction (especially co-operative dialogues between children and more knowledgeable members of society) is necessary for children to acquire the ways of thinking andRead MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 PagesOrganizational Behavior This page intentionally left blank Organizational Behavior EDITION 15 Stephen P. Robbins —San Diego State University Timothy A. Judge —University of Notre Dame i3iEi35Bj! Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto Delhi Mexico City Sao Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo Editorial Director: Sally Yagan Director of Editorial Services:Read MoreManagement Course: Mba−10 General Management215330 Words   |  862 PagesManagement Course: MBA−10 General Management California College for Health Sciences MBA Program McGraw-Hill/Irwin abc McGraw−Hill Primis ISBN: 0−390−58539−4 Text: Effective Behavior in Organizations, Seventh Edition Cohen Harvard Business Review Finance Articles The Power of Management Capital Feigenbaum−Feigenbaum International Management, Sixth Edition Hodgetts−Luthans−Doh Contemporary Management, Fourth Edition Jones−George Driving Shareholder Value Morin−Jarrell LeadershipRead MoreDeveloping Management Skills404131 Words   |  1617 Pagesmymanagementlab is an online assessment and preparation solution for courses in Principles of Management, Human Resources, Strategy, and Organizational Behavior that helps you actively study and prepare material for class. Chapter-by-chapter activities, including built-in pretests and posttests, focus on what you need to learn and to review in order to succeed. Visit www.mymanagementlab.com to learn more. DEVELOPING MANAGEMENT SKILLS EIGHTH EDITION David A. Whetten BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY Read MoreThe Management and Control of Quality 8e34169 Words   |  137 Pagesenvironment, and community and professional support are necessary activities that fall under _____. a. corporate policy b. social responsibility c. management ethics d. organizational effectiveness Answer: b AACSB: Reflective Thinking Skills Joseph Juran credited _____ of the entire workforce as one of the reasons for Japan’s rapid quality achievements. a. obedience b. conformity c. creativity d. professional qualifications Answer: c AACSB: Reflective Thinking Skills Problem-solving teams were introducedRead MoreThe Role of Network the Impact of Information Technology on Business Strategy Development in Construction Companies30104 Words   |  121 Pagesfrom 2002 until 2006 ............. 56 Table 12: ERP and CPM systems ................................................................................................. 64 iii 1 INTRODUCTION â€Å"The built environment can be seen as a synthesis of social, environmental and economic issues, reflecting immediate and long-term problems and opportunities. Since the design, construction and maintenance of buildings and infrastructure are essential for economic development and sustainable growth as wellRead MoreLibrary Management204752 Words   |  820 Pages . . . . . . . . . . 310 The Process Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 Adams’s Equity Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 Vroom’s Expectancy Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 Behavior Modification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 Goal-Setting Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 How Should Managers Motivate? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . .

Pro Choice Vs. Abortion - 1426 Words

Introduction Pro-Choice is an opposing position against the pro-life that completely and clearly advocates that every women in the world has equal rights of having abortion and there will no legal or religious restriction against electing an abortion in routine life. Many of social religious, civil and national federations raised a slogan against abortion and in the support of this opposition all of these communities and people also run Pro-life movement, United States. This movement opposes Pro-choice and many people considered in early days that abortion is an illegal phenomenon, while the religious communities strongly believed this would be an evil and would also cause of God s anger. When USA Supreme Court in 1973 announced its final decision in case of Roe v. Wade about the right of having an abortion, then most of country laws and legislations were stuck down in many of American States. After this, it was declared that would be no legal penalty to a woman for having an electiv e abortion after having a sex (Kerns,....... Steinauer, 2012). Discussion Pro-choice is just for advocacy and supporting the women s rights to have abortion whenever they want. This part of assignment will illustrate some of reasons, facts, statistics and ethical arguments about the right of women to have an elective abortion according to situations and their physical conditions. 1) Reasons of Pro-Choice As there are sound reasons of pro-life in health industry, so there are also strongShow MoreRelatedPro Choice Vs. Abortion1298 Words   |  6 PagesPro-choice has been a major topic ever since the women’s movements started in the early 1970’s, a question sometimes asked is that, if part of the population are so pro-life and worry about protecting a fetus, how come when the child is conceived they suddenly bash at you for having that unwanted child anyways, and that is hypocritical. In this essay, details include would be why people choose to be pro-choice, NARAL Pro-Choice America, the battle for reproductive justice for women and their rightRead MoreAbortion: Pro Life vs Pro Choice Essay1748 Words   |  7 PagesAbortion: Pro-Life vs. Pro-Choice Abortion: Pro-Life Vs. Pro-Choice â€Å"Abortion is the spontaneous or artificially induced expulsion of an embryo or fetus† (Abortion, 2002). An artificially induced abortion is the type referred to in the legal context. Abortions happen in different situations. The question comes when is it the right or wrong choice. The root question becomes the moment a fetus becomes a person and entitled to rights. The fetus could be a person at conception, duringRead MoreAbortion - Pro Life vs. Pro Choice3265 Words   |  14 Pagesis abortion. The debates are basically divided into Pro-Life and Pro-Choice. Pro-life supporters want abortion to be illegal and not performed anywhere. Pro-choice supporters want the choice to be up to the woman and no one else. There is no ethical way to decide between the two subjects and its all based on what the persons moral values. Abortion is the termination of an unwanted pregnancy by loss of or destruction of an egg, embryo or fetus before birth. The term of abortion is usedRead MoreAbortion: Pro-Life vs. Pro-Choice Essay918 Words   |  4 Pagestoday is Abortion. Abortion is defined as: Termination of pregnancy and expulsion of an embryo or of a fetus that is incapable of survival. The two sides of this issue are Pro-life and Pro-Choice. My goal is to give you and introduction to both sides of the issue, a few views form supporters of both sides, and finally my personal views and feelings. This is not intended to influence you to make a a decision one way or the other, but instead to enlighten you to judge for yourself. The Pro-Life sideRead MoreEssay Abortion: Pro-Life vs. Pro-Choice581 Words   |  3 PagesAbortion is never an easy decision, but women have been making the choice for thousands of years. It has become a large dilemma since 1973, when the U.S. Supreme Court passed a law making the procedure legal, and an even larger controversial issue. The controversy is divided into â€Å"Pro-Choice† and Pro-Life† views. Pro-Choice supporters believe that the woman should have to choice whether to abort or not. Pro-Life supporters believe that it should be illegal to abort and preformed. However, there areRead MoreShould Abortion Be Legalized?1172 Words   |  5 Pages Although some believe abortion is morally and ethically wrong should it be legal for victims of rape or incest who have no other alternative? Pro-Life advocates believe as horrible as abortion is, the baby is still innocent of any crime. Nobody should be killed for the crime of another person. While Pro-Choice advocates believe if a woman is pregnant by rape, compassion demands that she be allowed to abort. On the other hand, the pro-life vs pro-choice debate tends to overlook the fact that theRead MoreAdoption, NOT Abortion Essay934 Words   |  4 PagesNowadays, abortion has become a controversial issue because people are becoming more aware of the issue that abortion brings to society and the individual who is going through the abortion .In recent years, however, society has become very open-minded, and as a result pro-life and pro-choice groups have been able to sway the American public’s view of abortion. Abortion became legal in 1973 when Roe vs. Wade declared that a wo man has the right to choose if she wishes to continue with her pregnancyRead MoreCommon Ethical Dilemmas Faced in Nursing1447 Words   |  6 Pagesethical decisions. Pro- Life vs. Pro- Choice, Freedom vs. Control, Truth vs. Deception, and Knowledge vs. personal beliefs are all part of the problem. We live in a world where there seems to be contriversy about everything. Nursing is a very important field where there has to be good communication and great care, any hiccups in this could affect the whole work place. So what happens when you’re a nurse and you are placed in a big ethical dielemma. FINDINGS Pro- Life Vs. Pro-Choice According to Merriam-Read More Abortion Report Essay examples808 Words   |  4 Pages Abortion Report nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;I have chosen for my topic Abortion. I think that it is a topic that is very important in todays society however it is often dodged or avoided. Different Presidents say different things and have different stances about it, and often it is had to know what to think about it. Basically there are two different ways of looking at it: Pro-Choice, which takes the stance of saying that it is the womans choice if she wants to have an abortion and that itRead MoreAbortion Report823 Words   |  4 PagesAbortion Report I have chosen for my topic Abortion. I think that it is a topic that is very important in todays society however it is often dodged or avoided. Different Presidents say different things and have different stances about it, and often it is had to know what to think about it. Basically there are two different ways of looking at it: Pro-Choice, which takes the stance of saying that it is the womans choice if she wants to have an abortion and that it is only her business. So